July 10 - Today In Science History

JULY 10 - BIRTHS
Owen Chamberlain
(EB)	Born 10 July 1920 American physicist who shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1959 with Emilio Segrè for their discovery of the antiproton. This previously postulated subatomic particle was the second antiparticle to be discovered and led directly to the discovery of many additional antiparticles.
Edward H. Lowe
(source)	Born 10 July 1920; died 4 Oct 1995. American inventor of Kitty Litter. After Navy duty (1941-45), Lowe joined his father's company in Cassopolis, Mich., selling industrial absorbents, including sawdust and an absorbent clay called Fuller's Earth. In 1947, Lowe suggested the use of the clay instead of ashes for his neighbor's cat's box to avoid sooty paw prints. It worked well and Lowe thought other cat owners would use this new cat-box filler. He filled ten brown bags with clay, wrote the name "Kitty Litter" on them and began selling it through the local pet store. By 1990, his marketing effort had grown into a clay mining and consumer product business, the largest U.S. producer of cat-box filler, now improved, 99% dust free, and sanitized against odor-causing bacteria. He held 67 US and foreign patents.
Kurt Alder
(source)	Born 10 July 1902 German chemist who was the corecipient (with Otto Diels) of the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1950 for their development of the Diels-Alder reaction (1928), or diene synthesis, a widely used method of synthesizing cyclic organic compounds. In this type of reaction, a compound containing two double bonds separated by a single bond (i.e. a conjugated diene) adds to a suitable compound containing one double bond (dienophile) to give a ring compound. In the dienophile, the double bond must have a carbonyl group on each side. The reaction proceeds in the mildest conditions, is of general application, and hence of great utility in synthesis. It is used in the synthesis of natural products, such as sterols, vitamin K, cantharides, and synthetic polymers.
Maurice Lugeon
	Born 10 July 1870 Swiss geologist who provided the first comprehensive interpretation of the Alps as a whole.
Alvan Graham Clark
(source)	Born 10 July 1832; died 9 June 1897. U.S. astronomer, one of an American family of telescope makers and astronomers who supplied unexcelled lenses to many observatories in the U.S. and Europe during the heyday of the refracting telescope. He began a deep interest in astronomy while still at school, then joined the family firm of Alvan Clark & Sons, makers of astronomical lenses. In 1861, testing a new lens, he looked through it at Sirius and observed faintly beside it, Sirius B, the twin star predicted by Friedrich Bessel in 1844. Carrying on the family business, after the deaths of his father and brother, Clark made the 40" lenses of the Yerkes telescope (still the largest refractor in the world). Their safe delivery was a source of anxiety. He died shortly after their first use. [Image: Clark beside the crown-glass element of the Yerkes Observatory 40-inch objective.] Alvan Clark & Sons, Artists in Optics, by Warner and Ariail.
Carl Culmann
	Born 10 July 1821 Engineer whose graphic methods of structural analysis have been widely applied to engineering and mechanics.
Dr. Harry Nicholls Holmes
	Born 10 July 1879; died 1 Jul 1958. Chemist, crystalized vitamin A.

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JULY 10 - DEATHS

Aaron "Bunny" Lapin
(source)	Died 10 July 1999 (born 5 Jan 1914) American inventor of Reddi-Wip, whipped cream dessert topping in a spray can (1948). First sold by St. Louis milkmen, its distribution expanded quickly across N. America during America's postwar desire for convenience. Lapin became known as the Whipped Cream King. Lapin established Clayton Corp. to made his own valves for the can. He was issued U.S. patent 2,704,172 on 10 Mar 1955 for the valve. Clayton now also makes industrial valves, closures, caulk, adhesives and foamed plastic products such as insulation and cushioning materials. In 1998, Time listed Reddi-wip as one of the century's 100 great consumer items, along with the pop-top can and Spam. Reddi-Wip is now a brand of ConAgra's Beatrice Food.« [Image right: modern Reddi-Wip container.]
Frank Schlesinger
c. 1916 (source)	Died 10 July 1943 (born 11 May 1871) American astronomer who pioneered in the use of photography to map stellar positions and to measure stellar parallaxes, which could give more precise determinations of distance than visual ones, and with less than one hundredth as much time at the telescope. He designed instruments and mathematical and numerical techniques to improve parallax measurements. He published ten volumes of zone catalogs, including some 150,000 stars. He compiled positions, magnitudes, proper motions, radial velocities, and other data to produce the first edition and, with Louise Jenkins, the second, of the widely-used Bright Star Catalogues, making Yale a leading institution in astrometry. He established a second Yale observatory in South Africa.
Harold DeForest Arnold
1914 (source)	Died 10 July 1933 (born 3 Sep 1883) American physicist whose research led to the development of long-distance telephony and radio communication. He worked at Western Electric on thermionic tubes, which amplified radio and telephone signals, leading to transcontinental telephony (July 1914). Even before the transcontinental line was completed, Arnold was directing work on the development of new higher power tubes to extend telephone service by radio to other continents. The first transcontinental demonstration of radio telephone (29 Sep 1915) was transmitted from New York City to Arlington, Virginia, then to San Francisco and Honolulu. Arnold later became the first director of research at Bell Telephone Labs (1925 to his death in 1933).
Johann Gottfried Galle
(source)	Died 10 July 1910 (born 9 Jun 1812) German astronomer who on 23 Sep 1846, was the first to observe the planet Neptune, whose existence had been predicted in the calculations of Leverrier. Leverrier had written to Galle asking him to search for the new planet at a predicted location. Galle was then a member of the staff of the Berlin Observatory and had discovered three comets. In 1838, while assistant to Johann Franz Encke, Galle discovered the dark, inner C ring of Saturn at the time of the maxium ring opening. In 1851, he became professor of astronomy at Breslau and director of the observatory there. In 1872, he proposed the use of asteroids rather than regular planets for determinations of the solar parallax, a suggestion which was successful in an international campaign (1888-89).
Karl Richard Lepsius
(source)	Died 10 July 1884 (born 23 Dec 1810) German Egyptologist, a founding father of scientific methods in archaeology whose plans, maps and drawings of tomb and temple walls are of high accuracy and reliability. In 1842, he headed a team of carefully chosen specialists on a four year expedition to the Nile Valley sponsored by King Fredrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia. Lepsius explored Khartoum and Sennar, during which he collected 15,000 artifacts and dispatched for display in Berlin. In winter 1844-45, Lepsius travelled throughout the Valley of the Kings, recording numerous scenes and inscriptions. He returned in 1866 and found the Canopus decree at Tanis. Being written in two languages, it was a valuable cross-reference for the prior interpretation of the Rosetta stone by Champollion.«
John Locke
(source)	Died 10 July 1856 (born 19 Feb 1792) American geologist, surveyor and scientist who invented tools for surveyers, including a surveyor’s compass (patented 16 Jul 1850), a collimating level (Locke’s Hand Level, patented 2 Jul 1850) and a gravity escapement for regulator clocks. The electro-chronograph he constructed (1844-48) for the United States Coast Survey was installed in the Naval Observatory, Washington, in 1848. It improved determination of longitudes, as it was able to make a printed record on a time scale of an event to within one one-hundredth of a second. When connected via the nation's telegraph system, astronomers could record the time of events they observed from elsewhere in the country, by the pressing a telegraph key. Congress awarded him $10,000 for his inventions on 3 Mar 1849.*« [Image: Time display portion of Locke's electro-chronograph while installed at the Naval Observatory.]
Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre
(source)	Died 10 July 1851 (born 18 Nov 1787) French painter and physicist who invented the daguerreotype, the first practical process of photography. Though the first permanent photograph from nature was made in 1826/27 by Joseph-Nicéphore Niepce of France, it was of poor quality and required about eight hours' exposure time. The process that Daguerre developed required only 20 to 30 minutes. The two became partners in the development of Niepce's heliographic process from 1829 until the death of Niepce in 1833. Daguerre continued his experiments, and he discovered that exposing an iodized silver plate in a camera would result in a lasting image after a chemical fixing process. The Daguerreotype: Nineteenth-Century Technology and Modern Science, by Barger and White.



JULY 10 - EVENTS

Neanderthal origins
	In 1997, 2 years ago, Scientists in London say DNA from a Neanderthal skeleton supported a theory that all humanity descended from an "African Eve" 100,000 to 200,000 years ago.
Telstar
(source)	In 1962, Telstar 1, the world's first geosynchronous communications satellite, was launched from Cape Canaveral, Fla., to relay TV and telephone signals between the United States and Europe. Pioneered by AT&T, it set the stage for far easier access to information, with much greater speed. When Telstar was put into service for the first satellite television broadcast, it made possible the first live television signals sent across the Atlantic. Viewers in France and England saw President Kennedy conduct a press conference, and audiences in the United States watched French singer Yves Montand and the changing of the guard at England’s Buckingham Palace.
Seat-belt patent
(source)	In 1962, a U.S. patent was issued to Swedish engineer, Nils Bohlen, for the three-point seat-belt (No. 3,043,625). His lap and and shoulder design is now familiar as the passenger-restraint safety device in cars that has saved countless lives. His design replaced the earlier style of a single safety belts strapped across the body, with the buckle placed over the abdomen, which often caused severe internal injuries in high-speed crashes. Bohlin assigned the patent to Volvo, the car manufacturer for whom he worked. From Aug 1959, Volvo incorporated Bohlin's seat belt into the vehicles they manufactured. The company also made the design freely available to other car manufacturers to save more lives.«
Parking meter
	In 1958, the first parking meters were installed in England (625 installed).
Police radio
	In 1933, the first police radio system began operating in Eastchester Township, NY.
Scopes monkey trial
(source)	In 1925, the "Scopes monkey trial" began in Dayton, Tennessee and ran for 12 days. A local school teacher, John Scopes, was prosecuted under the state's Butler Act, but was supported by the American Civil Liberties Union. This law, passed a few months earlier (21 Mar 1925) prohibited the teaching of evolution in public schools. The trial was a platform to challenge the legality of the statute. Local town leaders,(wishing for the town to benefit from the publicity of the trial) had recruited Scope to stand trial. He was convicted (25 Jul) and fined $100. On appeal, the state supreme court upheld the constitutionality of the law but acquitted Scopes on the technicality that he had been fined excessively. The law was repealed on 17 May 1967.« [Image: cartoon from the New York Times, 25 Jul 1925. The cane is tagged "Evolution Trial."]
Helium liquefied
(source)	In 1908, Kamerlingh Onnes made helium liquid at a temperature of 4.2 K (about -269 ºC). He had worked for many years to liquify this element which persisted as a gas to the lowest temperature. Using liquid air to produce liquid hydrogen and then the hydrogen to jacket the liquification apparatus, he produced about 60 cubic centimeters of liquid helium. The gas was liquefied by compressing it, cooling it below the inversion temperature and then allowing it to expand, which causes further cooling resulting in the liquefaction of some of the gas. At his cryogenic laboratory, he had previously liquefied air (1892) in large quantities, and built a large hydrogen liquefier (1906). Onnes received the Nobel Prize in 1913 for his low temperature work.
Concrete street
	In 1892, the first concrete-paved street was built - Court Avenue, around the Logan County Court House, in Bellefountaine, Ohio. In the 19th century, concrete was called "artificial stone." George Bartholemew convinced the Bellefontaine City Council to try it in 1891. The bond he posted guaranteed the pavement would last at least five years. Over 100 years later, a portion remains, but open only to light traffic to preserve it. The remainder had been replaced by more modern paving materials.
Indelible pencil
(source)	In 1866, the first U.S. patent for an indelible pencil was issued to Edson P Clark of Northampton, Mass. as an "Producing Indelible Writing on Linen and other Fabrics" (No. 56,180). The pencil-lead was composed of gypsum (a hard moisture-resistance compound) and black lead (coloring agent, with optional asphaltum or lamp-black) and silver nitrate. It is the silver nitrate which blackens to make the indelible mark by the action of light or heat. The black lead and gypsum permit the pencil to be readily pointed. The patent described cementing the filling with shellac into grooved cedar wood. Clark held an earlier patent for an indelible composition, but described without the wood jacket (No. 24,195 on 31 May 1859). The Pencil: A History of Design and Circumstance, by Henry Petroski